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市场经济是一种经济体系，其中有两种力量，即供应和需求，指导商品和服务的生产。市场经济不受中央当局（如政府）控制，而是基于自愿交换。
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我们提供的市场经济学Market economy及其相关学科的代写，服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:
- Statistical Inference 统计推断
- Statistical Computing 统计计算
- Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
- Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
- (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
- Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
- Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
- Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|市场经济学代写Market economy代考|Consumer sovereignty
One of the main assumptions in a market economy is that consumers determine what is produced. Consumers will ultimately decide what goods and services will be produced by exercising their freedom to choose what they buy and which wants they will satisfy. Business firms will produce whatever goods and services are in demand. This concept is known as consumer sovereignty because consumers determine the answer to the questions of what to produce and how much should be produced. This is also one of the great strengths of the market economy because production is geared to what people want and their wants are satisfied.
Consumer sovereignty is based on consumers sending signals to producers through their demand for goods and services. Where their demand is high relative to supply, prices will rise. Producers will then notice that higher profits can be made by producing those items for which demand is greatest. As a result, they will shift resources into those other forms of production. Consumer sovereignty can therefore determine how resources are allocated in an economy.
Through the operation of consumer sovereignty, consumer income levels determine the types of production that occur in an economy. As an economy becomes more prosperous and income levels rise, demand for luxury goods increases, and so does their production. Thus, as an economy experiences an upturn and consumer incomes rise, the production of goods such as sports cars and designer clothing will increase. Similarly, production of these items will go down in an economic downturn.
However, consumer sovereignty is not absolute. In the twenty-first-century market economy, there are several aspects of business conduct that can reduce the sovereignty of consumers:
- Marketing: Advertising and direct marketing exert a powerful influence over the spending patterns of consumers. The importance of marketing to the functioning of market economies has grown substantially in recent years. While some marketing strategies are informative, most strategies place a strong emphasis on understanding their target consumer in order to manipulate their behaviour. Marketers conduct extensive research into the wants, interests, desires and fears of consumers, and they use this as the basis for both mass marketing (such as in the popular media) and direct marketing (such as targeted Facebook, Instagram, Google search and web browser advertising as well as more traditional email and direct mail approaches). Consumer sovereignty is diminished by manipulative or deceptive marketing practices.
经济代写|市场经济学代写Market economy代考|Age
Age also plays a role in savings and consumption patterns. An individual’s income stream and propensity to consume and save are not constant throughout their life. According to the simple consumption theory, an individual or a household would consume a constant proportion of their income each period. This is clearly not the case. Individuals and households tend to smooth their consumption – if they expect to earn a very high level of income this period and very low or no income in the following period, they are likely to save up around half their income this period so as to have a reasonably constant standard of living in both periods.
Over the course of our lifetime, our consumption and savings behaviour moves through several patterns. When people are young, they tend to receive lower levels of income because they lack skills, experience and education. Therefore, they tend to spend most of their income and save very little – in fact they would often tend to dis-save (or borrow) in order to finance their education. However, once people start working, and especially in middle age, their incomes rise, and they would tend to consume a smaller proportion of their income, as they start saving and accumulating assets for retirement. In retirement, people no longer earn income from their labour, and they consume out of past savings and wealth, or rely on government pension benefits.
This way of looking at a household’s consumption behaviour can explain why individuals on higher incomes tend to have a lower average propensity to consume compared with lower-income earners. We can explain this by saying that individuals who are on higher incomes would tend to save more to pay past debts and accumulate assets for retirement, whereas low income earners must use a higher proportion of their income on the consumption of day to day necessities such as food and living expenses. Thus, as an individual grows older, their average propensity to consume initially falls (as their income rises) and then subsequently rises again after retirement.
This theory of consumption behaviour is often referred to as the life-cycle theory of consumption. Figure $4.3$ shows what an individual’s income, consumption and savings patterns would look like during their lifetime, according to this theory.
经济代写|市场经济学代写Market economy代考|Consumer tastes and preferences
Another major influence on a consumer’s decision on how to spend their money is their tastes and preferences. An individual will decide to purchase those goods and services that give them the highest level of utility or personal satisfaction. Generally, we assume that a higher quantity of most goods increases consumer utility. However, some goods and services will give an individual consumer higher satisfaction than others. For example, a consumer who has a preference for fruit juice and who dislikes soft drinks will tend to spend more on juices and consume relatively fewer soft drinks.
Some goods may in fact subtract from consumer satisfaction. For example, if a consumer who dislikes classical music were to purchase a ticket to the symphony, this would reduce their utility (they gain no extra satisfaction for the ticket) and they will probably not value the purchase. Consumer tastes and preferences can be changed by experimentation and learning (a consumer who dislikes classical music may change their mind after seeing a movie that uses a Mozart symphony as its background music).
As consumer tastes and preferences change over time, so too will the demand for particular goods. For example, clothing that is coming into fashion will face an increase in demand, while consumer demand for clothing that is going out of fashion will decrease.
Innovation and technological progress lead to consumers demanding new and better products at the expense of superseded ones. For example, global sales of laptops and tablets were more than three times the sales of desktop computers in 2019. Australians now spend a much higher proportion of their income on communications than in the past, reflecting the explosive growth of mobile telephony, use of the internet and cheaper call costs. As of July 2018 , there were $14.7$ million internet subscribers in Australia, according to the ABS Internet Activity Survey. Ten years before, less than half that number of Australians were internet subscribers, reflecting the change in consumer behaviour in response to technological change.
市场经济学代考
经济代写|市场经济学代写Market economy代考|Consumer sovereignty
市场经济的主要假设之一是消费者决定生产什么。消费者最终将通过行使自由选择他们购买的东西以及他们将满足哪些需求来决定生产哪些商品和服务。商业公司将生产任何需要的商品和服务。这个概念被称为消费者主权，因为消费者决定了生产什么以及应该生产多少的问题的答案。这也是市场经济的一大优势，因为生产是针对人们想要的，他们的需求得到满足。
消费者主权基于消费者通过对商品和服务的需求向生产者发送信号。在他们的需求相对于供应高的地方，价格将会上涨。然后，生产者会注意到通过生产需求最大的产品可以获得更高的利润。结果，他们会将资源转移到其他生产形式中。因此，消费者主权可以决定一个经济体中资源的分配方式。
通过消费者主权的运作，消费者收入水平决定了一个经济体中发生的生产类型。随着经济变得更加繁荣和收入水平提高，对奢侈品的需求增加，其生产也随之增加。因此，随着经济的好转和消费者收入的增加，跑车和名牌服装等商品的生产将会增加。同样，这些物品的生产将在经济衰退时下降。
但是，消费者主权不是绝对的。在二十一世纪的市场经济中，商业行为有几个方面可以降低消费者的主权：
- 营销：广告和直接营销对消费者的消费模式产生强大的影响。近年来，营销对市场经济运作的重要性显着提高。虽然一些营销策略是信息丰富的，但大多数策略都非常强调了解他们的目标消费者以操纵他们的行为。营销人员对消费者的需求、兴趣、欲望和恐惧进行了广泛的研究，并将其作为大众营销（如在流行媒体中）和直接营销（如有针对性的 Facebook、Instagram、谷歌搜索和网络）的基础浏览器广告以及更传统的电子邮件和直邮方式）。操纵性或欺骗性的营销行为削弱了消费者的主权。
经济代写|市场经济学代写Market economy代考|Age
年龄也在储蓄和消费模式中发挥作用。个人的收入流和消费和储蓄倾向在其一生中并不是恒定不变的。根据简单消费理论，一个人或一个家庭在每个时期都会消费其收入的固定比例。显然不是这样。个人和家庭倾向于平滑他们的消费——如果他们预计这一时期的收入水平很高，而下一个时期的收入很低或没有，那么他们很可能在这一时期将大约一半的收入存起来，以便有一个两个时期的生活水平相当稳定。
在我们的一生中，我们的消费和储蓄行为会经历几种模式。当人们年轻时，他们往往收入水平较低，因为他们缺乏技能、经验和教育。因此，他们倾向于花掉大部分收入而储蓄很少——事实上，他们往往倾向于不储蓄（或借贷）以资助他们的教育。然而，一旦人们开始工作，尤其是在中年，他们的收入就会增加，而他们往往会消费较少比例的收入，因为他们开始为退休储蓄和积累资产。退休后，人们不再从劳动中获得收入，他们消耗过去的储蓄和财富，或者依靠政府的养老金福利。
这种看待家庭消费行为的方式可以解释为什么与低收入者相比，高收入者的平均消费倾向较低。我们可以这样解释这一点，收入较高的个人倾向于储蓄更多以偿还过去的债务并为退休积累资产，而低收入者必须将更高比例的收入用于日常必需品的消费，例如伙食费和生活费。因此，随着个人年龄的增长，他们的平均消费倾向最初会下降（随着收入的增加），然后在退休后再次上升。
这种消费行为理论通常被称为消费生命周期理论。数字4.3根据这一理论，显示了个人一生中的收入、消费和储蓄模式。
经济代写|市场经济学代写Market economy代考|Consumer tastes and preferences
另一个影响消费者决定如何花钱的主要因素是他们的品味和偏好。个人将决定购买那些能给他们最高水平的效用或个人满意度的商品和服务。一般来说，我们假设大多数商品的数量增加会增加消费者的效用。但是，某些商品和服务会给个人消费者带来比其他商品和服务更高的满意度。例如，偏爱果汁但不喜欢软饮料的消费者往往会在果汁上花费更多，而消耗相对较少的软饮料。
有些商品实际上可能会降低消费者的满意度。例如，如果一个不喜欢古典音乐的消费者要购买一张交响乐的门票，这会降低他们的效用（他们对这张门票没有额外的满足感）并且他们可能不会重视这次购买。消费者的口味和偏好可以通过实验和学习来改变（不喜欢古典音乐的消费者可能会在看过以莫扎特交响乐作为背景音乐的电影后改变主意）。
随着消费者的口味和偏好随着时间的推移而发生变化，对特定商品的需求也会发生变化。例如，正在流行的服装将面临需求增加，而消费者对过时服装的需求将减少。
创新和技术进步导致消费者以牺牲被取代的产品为代价要求新的和更好的产品。例如，2019 年，笔记本电脑和平板电脑的全球销量是台式电脑销量的三倍多。现在澳大利亚人在通讯上的支出比例远高于过去，这反映了移动电话的爆炸式增长、使用互联网和更便宜的通话费用。截至 2018 年 7 月，有14.7根据 ABS 互联网活动调查，澳大利亚有 100 万互联网用户。十年前，不到一半的澳大利亚人是互联网用户，这反映了消费者行为因技术变革而发生的变化。
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金融工程代写
金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题，以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。
非参数统计代写
非参数统计指的是一种统计方法，其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型；这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。
广义线性模型代考
广义线性模型（GLM）归属统计学领域，是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。
术语 广义线性模型（GLM）通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归，以及方差分析和方差分析（仅含固定效应）。
有限元方法代写
有限元方法（FEM）是一种流行的方法，用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。
有限元是一种通用的数值方法，用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程（即一些边界值问题）。为了解决一个问题，有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分，称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的，它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的：用于求解的数值域，它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统，以模拟整个问题。然后，有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。
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随机分析代写
随机微积分是数学的一个分支，对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。
时间序列分析代写
随机过程，是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体，参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现，其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值（如1秒，5分钟，12小时，7天，1年），因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中，往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录，以得到其自身发展的规律。
回归分析代写
多元回归分析渐进（Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics）属于计量经济学领域，主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法，可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系，在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。
MATLAB代写
MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习和应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。
